Shell

Thinking Machines

Prof. Calvin

Why Shell?

What is the “shell”?

For lack of a better word, the command line shell.
We’ve called it the terminal.
Thus far, we’ve used the shell to run python and nvim
We’ve also briefly used a single shell command - ls
- Recall we used it to see we’d written a file with nvim

Conceptualizing

So far we’ve used the shell as follows:

On the Shell

Shell scripting is used to control compute clusters
- These clusters do complex computations like climate modelling, protein folding.
- Sometimes called “HPC” - high performance computing.
We can practice using the same techniques on our own computers!

Automation

Shell scripting can be automated
- Sometimes we just want a computer to do something without us thinking about it.
- Say you want to collate data every Sunday at 2 PM PT.
  - Write a .py script that collates
  - Schedule it to run automatically with the shell cron command

Why not the shell?

Non-graphical - When first learning, students are used to see pictures and clicking them
OS-based - Windows and MacOS have different shell scripts
Steep-learning curve - Like Neovim, students generally find it difficult to get started, though it is widely preferred by experienced users

Git Bash

Setup

We need to do a bit more setup to:
- Make the course run smoothly
- Learn the general, transferrable skills we want.

Bash

The standard for shell scripting is “bash”

In computing, Bash (short for “Bourne Again SHell,”) is an interactive command interpreter and command programming language developed for UNIX-like operating systems.

(It’s free)

Windows

By default, Windows has two shells:
- cmd.exe - From the 90s
- PowerShell - Newer standard
Neither used in scientific computing.
Instead use:
- Git Bash
  - Like Python, there is a very important box to check!
  - I provide an Appendix

MacOS

MacOS uses zsh
It is close enough to bash to use in this course.
You will still need to install git, however, a critical shell command.
- Install Git for macOS
- It installs through command line!

Why standardize?

It is bad enough to have to say “type python or python3”
But even just using ls we see perhaps frustrating differences.
- ls on bash lists only file names
- ls on PowerShell lists file names, dates, and more
- ls on cmd.exe is an error.

Diving In

Today we will use shell scripting in the terminal to…
- Delete old files
- Organize files within folders
- Save the output of scripts as files

Starting Point

Let’s see what .py files you have.
We’ll issue an ls command.
We’ll provide an argument to the command.
We’ll use the .py file extension in the command
And importantly, we’ll use the “wildcard” *

ls *.py

Wildcard

The * will “match” any name.
So .py will “match” and Python file!
I don’t know what you’ve saved, I see this!

$ ls *.py
args.py  hi.py  pw.py  reply.py  tax.py

What about ls *? ls *w.py?

The File System

File Management

I tend to like to:
- Delete old files
- Organize files within folders
- Save the output of scripts as files
Let’s do that.

`rm`

Warning

This command is dangerous.

The rm command removes files by name.
For example, I don’t use reply.py anymore.
I can remove it like so:

$ ls *.py
args.py  hi.py  pw.py  reply.py  tax.py
$ rm reply.py
$ ls *.py
args.py  hi.py  pw.py  tax.py

Remove/Recycle

You may be used to being able to restore deleted files from a recycling bin on your device.
Restoring from rm is sometimes possible, but never easy.
Be conscientious!
- Learning to think about file deletion is an important part of the scientific computing process!

Alternative

Sometimes I don’t want to look at a file, but I don’t want to delete it either.
I often keep a folder around called “old”
It’s stuff that’s old!
I can make a folder with mkdir and the folder name, so

$ ls
args.py  hi.py  pw.py  tax.py
$ mkdir old
$ ls
args.py  hi.py  old  pw.py  tax.py

Movement

Moving Files

You may be used to “drag and drop” movement of files between folders.
In bash, we can do this using the mv command.
It takes two arguments.
- The file to move, and
- A folder to move it to.

$ ls
args.py  hi.py  old  pw.py  tax.py
$ mv hi.py old
args.py  old  pw.py  tax.py

Where is hi.py?

Moving in Terminal

When we are using the terminal, we have a notion of some location
It is the same kind of location a file can have, that is, within some folder.
These locations are called “paths” and are defined by how we get to them.

Locating ourselves

You can see where you are at in the terminal at any time with pwd
Stands for “print working directory”
If you just opened Terminal on Windows you would see:

$ pwd
/c/Users/cd-desk

On MacOS, I believe

$ pwd
/home/user

Moving ourselves

To change which folder (or directory) the terminal is currently working within
- The “working directory”
We use the “change directory” command cd

$ ls
args.py  old  pw.py  tax.py  
$ pwd
/home/user
$ cd old
$ ls
hi.py
$ pwd
/home/user/old

Movement

We can move a file, like hi.py, to a folder, like old

$ mv hi.py old

We can move the terminal’s current location to folder, like old

$ cd old

Exiting a Folder

To leave a folder after cding into it, we use a special destination

$ cd ..
user@DESKTOP-THMS2PJ:~$ pwd
/home/user

.. is the name of the folder that contains the folder you are currently in.
So you can use cd to change to the containing folder, often called the “parent”

Graphically

Removing Directories

Like files, which we can remove with rm, we can also remove folders (or directories).
We do so with rmdir
Let’s try on old

$ rmdir old
rmdir: failed to remove 'old': Directory not empty

You can only remove folders this way if they are empty.
This helps you not delete things by accident!

Files

Reading

The names of files are helpful, but not always all we want to know.
When files only contain text - like .py files, we can use cat to see what text they contain.

$ cat args.py
import sys

print(sys.argv[0])

Writing

Really, the best way to write a file from the command line is with Neovim.
But there are other ways, and sometimes you just want to make a file to test something.
You can make an empty file (with noting in it) via touch

$ touch somefile.txt
$ ls *.txt
somefile.txt

Echoing

To put anything in a file, we often use an echo command.
echo is also used for shell “Hello, world!”

$ echo "Hello, shell!"
Hello, shell!

Redirecting

For any shell command - including echo - we can “redirect” what is printed to some file.
We do so using the special shell > operator
- It’s just a special thing, like *

$ echo "Hello, redirect!" > hi.txt
$ cat hi.txt
Hello, redirect!

This is very helpful to save the results of Python computations.

Example

Here’s an example how it should work!

$ python3 tax.py 40000 > tax_burden.txt
$ cat tax_burden.txt
115529.25

References

You can see the commands used here in a table reference in an Appendix
I’ll include them here as well!

Command	Action
`ls`	list files in folder
`rm f.txt`	delete file “f.txt”
`mkdir dir`	create a new folder named “dir”
`mv f.txt dir`	move file “f.txt” to folder “dir”
`pwd`	print current folder
`cd dir`	change current folder to “dir”
`cd ..`	go to “parent” folder
`echo hi`	print the text “hi”
`echo hi >f.txt`	write “hi” to file “f.txt”
`cat f.txt`	see the text in f.txt

Comments

Taking notes

I claim it is hard to tell what this code is for.

def piecewise(x):
    if (x < 4):
        return 9 * x ** 2 + 5
    elif (4 <= x <= 8):
        return 9
    elif (x > 8):
        return 2 - x

We may know, from taking this class, but in a few weeks, if I find and cat it, I am unlikely to know

Documentation

Good code tends to come with good documentation - written descriptions of what the code does.
In Python, we can include “comments” - text that is not evaluated as code - by starting lines with #

# This is a comment.
print("This is code.")
# This is another comment.

This is code.

Update `pw.py`

Here is how I documented pw.py:

# Example of a piecewise function, from a student.
# f(x) = 9x^2 + 5 | x < 4
#        9        | 4 <= x <= 8
#        2 - x    | x > 8
def piecewise(x):
    if (x < 4):
        return 9 * x ** 2 + 5
    elif (4 <= x <= 8):
        return 9
    elif (x > 8):
        return 2 - x

This is functionally indentical, but easier on me!

Updating `tax.py`

With the benefit of comments, I’d like to look at income tax again.
Comments can make it much nicer to work with.
How?

tax_policy = [
    [415050, .396], 
    [413350, .35],
    [190150, .33],
    [91150, .28],
    [37650, .25],
    [9275, .15]    
]

Uh… what does that mean?

Vim Motions

Command Mode

The beauty of Neovim is how powerful command mode, vim motions, and vim operators can be.
We’ll just introduce a few.
The goal is to give a sense of what is possible, and give you things to start practicing.
If you ever want to do something in Neovim, chances are you can!

Solution

Code

tax_policy = [
    [415050, .396], 
    [413350, .35],
    [190150, .33],
    [91150, .28],
    [37650, .25],
    [9275, .15]    
]
def single_tax(pay):
    tax = 0
    for bracket in tax_policy:
        if pay > bracket[0]:
            tax += (pay - bracket[0]) * bracket[1]
            pay = bracket[0]
    return tax + pay * .1

Insert is easy

After opening the file, just press i and start typing…

# Gives the tax rate *above* a certain income level
tax_policy = [
    [415050, .396], 
    [413350, .35],
    [190150, .33],
    [91150, .28],
    [37650, .25],
    [9275, .15]    
]

`$` is end-of-line

ESC to exit i mode
“hjkl” are left-up-down-right
- So j down to the 415050 line
$ jumps to the end of the line

# Gives the tax rate *above* a certain income level
tax_policy = [
    [415050, .396], # e.g. .396 of every 1 dollar over 415050 is taxed
    [413350, .35],
    [190150, .33],
    [91150, .28],
    [37650, .25],
    [9275, .15]    
]

`0` is start-of-line

We’ll now copy that comment rather than re-typing the whole thing
ESC into command mode
0 brings to beginning of line.
/ let’s us search, so /# searches for the start of the comment
- Windows I had to “ENTER” after.

Practice this a few times!

Aside: Mouse

Tip

I know you can do this with the mouse.

I type a lot.
I promise this is faster once you practice.
- Took me around 2 weeks.
- Like 15% of a semester.
It is way faster than laptop trackpads.

Yank & Paste

Vim predates copy paste!
Type y to yank and then $ to yank until the end of the line.
- We can combine motions ($) and operators (y)
Use j to go down to the next line.
Use p to paste the comment.

# Gives the tax rate *above* a certain income level
tax_policy = [
    [415050, .396], # e.g. .396 of every 1 dollar over 415050 is taxed
    [413350, .35],# e.g. .396 of every 1 dollar over 415050 is taxed
    [190150, .33],
    [91150, .28],
    [37650, .25],
    [9275, .15]    
]

Update it

I used
- /9 - first character to change
- r - replace mode
- Type “5”.
- l to move right (onto “6”) then dl to delete the next character.

# Gives the tax rate *above* a certain income level
tax_policy = [
    [415050, .396], # e.g. .396 of every 1 dollar over 415050 is taxed
    [413350, .35],# e.g. .35 of every 1 dollar over 415050 is taxed
    [190150, .33],
    [91150, .28],
    [37650, .25],
    [9275, .15]    
]

Add the range

I used
- /over - first character to change
- de - We introduce the new e motion for “end of word” and combine with delete.
- Type “between 413350 and”
- I escaped (ESC) and saved (:w)

# Gives the tax rate *above* a certain income level
tax_policy = [
    [415050, .396], # e.g. .396 of every 1 dollar over 415050 is taxed
    [413350, .35],# e.g. .35 of every 1 dollar between 413350 and 415050 is taxed
    [190150, .33],
    [91150, .28],
    [37650, .25],
    [9275, .15]    
]

Scientific Writing

Writing as Thinking

I consider writing part of the scientific process.
You may realize while working through this that…
Each tax braket is a simple linear relation!
- The rate is the slope
- The intercept is how much they don’t have to pay due to marginal rates.
By writing and explain our computations, we can uncover insights

Naive notes

Here’s some naive notes I took.
They can be made better!

# Tax on first bracket, up to 9725 at .1
first = 9725 * .1
# Second - to 37650 at .25
second = first + (37650 - 9725) * .15

Compute Intercept

We know e.g. the tax cost at 500000

x = single_tax(500000)
x

154169.95

Compare to a non-marginal 39.6%

y = 500000 * .396
y

198000.0

We can find the difference.

b = x - y 
b

-43830.04999999999

A Linear Equation

Try 450000

income = 450000
[single_tax(income), income * .396 + b]

[134369.95, 134369.95]

Try 650000

income = 650000
[single_tax(income), income * .396 + b]

[213569.95, 213569.95]

We can precompute these and make much simpler functions

Aside: Slope-Intercept

I think of this as \[ y = mx + b \]
The slope-intercept form of a line, or linear equation.
We calculated it from the point-slope form of a line.

Aside: Scientific Application

Thinking in slopes and intercepts is a powerful scientific skill!

def in_degrees_f(degrees_c):
    return (9/5) * degrees_c + 32

Recognize this?

[in_degrees_f(0), in_degrees_f(100)]

[32.0, 212.0]

Exercise

Intercept Computation

One of my favorite ways to use Python, Neovim, and the shell is to:
- Compute some numerical values - Intercept values for linear equations of tax.
- Run the script and output the results to the shell.
- Use > to direct the output to file.
- Use nvim to edit that file into a new Python script that uses the numerical values I found.

First

Write a python script, points.py, that computes the tax cost at the end of each bracket.
Here it is for “Married Filing Jointly”
You can do this with a loop using the tax_policy list-of-lists!

b = 18550 * .1
print(b)
b += (75300 - 18550) * .15
print(b)
b += (151900 - 75300) * .25
print(b)
b += (231450 - 151900) * .28
print(b)

Aside: Loop Version

Code

taxes = [
    [18550, .10],
    [75300, .15],
    [151900, .25],
    [231450, .28],
    [413350, .33],
    [466951, .35]
]

cost = 0
start = 0
for tax in taxes:
    cost += (tax[0] - start) * tax[1]
    print(cost)
    start = tax[0]

Second

Run the Python script and direct the output to some file, like tax.py

$ python points.py > tax.py
$ nvim tax.py

From here, you can convert to a Python list of your choosing with a variety of means.

Aside: Visual Block

Warning

This is an advanced topic.

We introduce visual block mode
A way to modifying multiple lines all at once.
- There is also a regular “visual mode” v which I use less often.

Example

nvim tax.py
ctrl+q or ctrl+v to enter “visual block”
5j to move down 5 lines
I (shift + “i”) to enter “insert block”
Type “[” to begin a list
ESC to exit “insert block”
“[” will appear at the start of every line.

Before:

tax.py

After:

tax.py

[1855.0
[10367.5
[29517.5
[51791.5
[111818.5
[130578.85

Press u to undo to practice.

Aside: Printing Python

Alternatively, you can use print() to directly print things usable as Python.

Code

cost = 0
start = 0
for tax in taxes:
    cost += (tax[0] - start) * tax[1]
    print([cost, start, tax[1]])
    start = tax[0]

[1855.0, 0, 0.1]
[10367.5, 18550, 0.15]
[29517.5, 75300, 0.25]
[51791.5, 151900, 0.28]
[111818.5, 231450, 0.33]
[130578.85, 413350, 0.35]

Third

Use points to determine intercepts
Consider:

# For taxpayers making more than 151900
# They pay 51791.50, plus
# .28 for every dollar over 151900
bracket = [51791.5, 151900, 0.28]
# What is the linear equation?

We can calculate it as follows:

b = 51791.5 - (151900 * .28)
b

9259.499999999993

Fourth

Given the calculated slopes and intercepts, construct a piecewise function capturing income tax.
Something like this:

def married_tax(income):
    if (151900 <= income < 231450):
        return income * .28 - 9259.5
    # There will be more brackets of course!

Exercise

Create two Python files:
- One which calculates intercepts - Perhaps intercepts.py
- One which uses intercepts to compute tax cost linearly. - Perhaps tax_line.py

Solution pt. 1

Code

taxes = [
    [9275, .10],
    [37650, .15],
    [91150, .25],
    [190150, .28],
    [413350, .33],
    [415051, .35]
]

cost = 0
start = 0
for tax in taxes:
    cost += (tax[0] - start) * tax[1]
    tax += [cost - tax[0] * tax[1]]
    start = tax[0]
    print(tax)

Solution pt. 2

Code

# Generate with `intercepts` then modify with visual block mode
taxes = [
    [9275, 0.1, 0.0],
    [37650, 0.15, -463.75],
    [91150, 0.25, -4228.75],
    [190150, 0.28, -6963.25],
    [413350, 0.33, -16470.75],
    [415051, 0.35, -24737.75],
]

def single_tax(income):
    # Check all brackets
    for tax in taxes:
        if income < tax[0]:
            return income * tax[1] + tax[2]
    # We calculated the top bracket earlier
    return income * .396 + -43830.05

Shell

Why Shell?

What is the “shell”?

Conceptualizing

On the Shell

More on the Shell

Automation

Why not the shell?

Git Bash

Setup

Bash

Windows

MacOS

Why standardize?

Diving In

Starting Point

Wildcard

The File System

File Management

rm

Remove/Recycle

Alternative

Movement

Moving Files

Moving in Terminal

Locating ourselves

Moving ourselves

Movement

Exiting a Folder

Graphically

Removing Directories

Files

Reading

Writing

Echoing

Redirecting

Example

References

Comments

Taking notes

Documentation

Update pw.py

Updating tax.py

Vim Motions

Command Mode

Solution

Insert is easy

$ is end-of-line

0 is start-of-line

Aside: Mouse

Yank & Paste

Update it

Add the range

Scientific Writing

Writing as Thinking

Naive notes

Compute Intercept

A Linear Equation

Aside: Slope-Intercept

Aside: Scientific Application

Exercise

Intercept Computation

First

Aside: Loop Version

Second

Aside: Visual Block

Example

Aside: Printing Python

Third

Fourth

Exercise

Solution pt. 1

Solution pt. 2

`rm`

Update `pw.py`

Updating `tax.py`

`$` is end-of-line

`0` is start-of-line